In the present research, a combined forward extrusion–equal channel angular pressing was developed and executed for the deformation of a plain carbon steel. In this method, two different deformation steps, including forward extrusion and equal channel angular pressing, take place successively in a single die. The deformation process was performed at different deformation start temperatures (800, 930 and 1100°C). Three-dimensional finite element simulation was used to predict the strain and temperature variations within the samples during deformation. With microstructural observations and the results of finite element simulation, the main grain refinement mechanisms were studied at different deformation temperatures. The results show that the forward extrusion–equal channel angular pressing is effective in refining the ferrite grains from an initial size of 32 μm to a final size of ∼0·9 μm. The main mechanisms of grain refinement were considered to be strain assisted transformation, dynamic strain induced transformation and continuous dynamic recrystallisation, depending on the deformation temperature.
